Buddhism -  An Introduction For Students

By Graeme Lyall AM (Originally published in "Exploring Religion", Melbourne, Oxford University Press)

(I) VEDIC BEGINNINGS

To set the scene for the study of Buddhism, one needs to look at a very advanced civilisation that existed between approximately 3,000 and 1500 years before the beginning of our current era. What is known as ‘the Indus valley civilisation’ was situated in modern day Pakistan. It is important to note that there was no nation, in those days, called ‘India’ or Pakistan. The Indus Valley civilisation[i] was excavated early in this century and was a cause of wonderment to archaeological scholars. The two major cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were found to have wide streets with an underground drainage system. Although forms of written material from this civilisation have been found on seals, up until now, it has not been possible to decipher these writings. We can only assume certain facts about this society from the items excavated from these sites and some of these are relevant to our studies in Buddhism. Small figurines of people seated cross-legged indicate that some form of meditation was practiced in the Indus Valley society. Many scholars believe that the source of the practice of meditation can be traced to the Indus Valley civilisation. Replicas of the Pipal tree, Ficus religiosa, under which Siddhartha Gotama sat at the time of his enlightenment, were also discovered. This indicated that this species of tree had a special significance to these people as it has had to Buddhists up until this day. It is also known that wandering holy men (sramanas), rather than priests, were a familiar sight to the people of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.

Although the Indus valley civilisation had seen several invasions over the centuries, around 1600 BCE, a major invasion from the North west occurred. This was from nomadic people known as the Ariyas (‘Ariya’ means ‘noble’)  who occupied the Indus valley. Scholars are still unsure as to whether their invasion heralded the end of the Indus valley civilisation or whether the occupants of the Indus valley had already moved on due to the constant flooding of the region. However, several tribes of Ariyas had previously occupied vast tracts of land extending from Poland to Afghanistan in the East. The highest concentration of the Aryan population was in Iran but their influence extended from Eire in the West to the borders of India. The names ‘Eire’ and ‘Iran’ are both derived from ‘Ariya’. They spoke a collection of related languages known as ‘Indo-European’ from which both the European languages and Sanskrit, the classical language of India, evolved. As far as their religious beliefs are concerned, the Ariyas had no tradition of meditation, but instead, practised ritual sacrifices to appease the nature gods. These sacrifices were performed by the priests or Brahmins. The Ariyas were tall and fair skinned people who were ruled by tribal chiefs. The original inhabitants of the Indus valley civilisation, the Dravidians, were referred to by the Ariyas as Dasyas (slaves) and have been described as “dark and ill-favoured, bull-lipped, snub-nosed, worshippers of the phallus and of hostile speech”[ii]. To preserve their ‘racial purity’, the Ariyas introduced a class structure or varna (colour), often wrongly translated as ‘caste’ that survives in Indian society until this day.  The highest level of this class system was the Brahmin or priestly class. Then there was the Kshatriya or warrior class. The Brahmins performed the religious rituals and from the Kshatriyas came the rulers. The lower classes were the Vaisiyas who were merchants and peasants with the lowest being the Sudras who performed the menial tasks such as street and toilet cleaning.

movement within Hinduism and not a distinctive religion in its own right. We can clearly see, if we look into the pre-Buddhist history of India, that Brahminism, the predecessor of modern day Hinduism, and Buddhism, although having some elements of cross-fertilisation[i], evolved independently and hold very different beliefs.

(II) The Life of the Buddha

Although the existence of  the person named Siddhartha Gautama, who later became the Buddha is a historical fact, very little is known of his life, particularly his early life. Two books, written long after his passing try to reconstruct a story of his childhood. They are “The Mahavastu” that dates from the 2nd century BCE and “The Buddha Carita”, by Asvaghosha, written in the second century of our current era. We know, from the Buddha’s reminiscences recorded in the Tripitaka, about his adult life but his early childhood is a mixture of fact and legend and so we must be careful not to accept what is written of his early life as a historic fact. Many of the legends were generated to illustrate the development of some of his virtues and are useful in illustrating the qualities expected of one who is regarded as a Buddha or Awakened One. The actual date of his birth is also a subject of debate among scholars but most of them agree that the most likely date was 486 BCE[ii]

[iii]On the border of  modern day Nepal was the small kingdom of Kosala ruled over by King Pasenadi. His subjects consisted of two clans, the Koliyas and the Sakyas. The chief of the Sakyas was Suddhodana who was married to two sisters, Maya and Prajapati. One night, Maya reported having a strange dream. She dreamt of a white elephant entering the side of her body. On reporting this, she was informed that such a dream was very propitious as it foretold of her giving birth to a child who would be very special. In due time, being pregnant, she felt that the time for giving birth was very near. It was the custom in those times for a woman to return to the home of her parents when giving birth, so she set out for the home of her parents at Devadaha. Feeling that the delivery was about to take place, she stopped at Lumbini Garden to rest. In that garden she gave birth to a son. She and her retinue abandoned their plans to journey to Devadaha and returned to her home in Kapilavastu. Maya, unfortunately passed away seven days after the birth so her sister, Prajapati, took over the responsibility of raising the baby.

Despite the sadness of Maya’s passing, Chief Suddhodana was overjoyed that she had borne him a son, so he called in a famous seer, Asita, to predict the future of the boy. Asita looked at the boy and was overjoyed at the sight of such a beautiful baby. Soon his joy turned to sadness and a tear rolled down his cheek. The Chief was dismayed. “Is there something wrong?” he asked. “No!” replied Asita. “Then why were you looking so sad?” asked Suddhodana. The seer told him that this child would either grow up to be a great ruler or he would leave the worldly life and become a Buddha. His sadness was due to the fact that Asita was already very old. If the boy became a Buddha, he would have, by then, passed away and could not benefit from the profound teachings that would lead to his liberation. The Chief was deeply moved but he resolved that he would surround the child with so much luxury that his choice to become a great ruler would be assured. The child was named Siddhartha Gautama. Siddhartha, his given name, means ‘Goal Accomplished’ and Gautama was his family[iv] name.

During his childhood, Siddhartha was given a sound education, studying subjects such as language and composition, art and crafts, medicine and logic. He was also trained in the art of warfare so that he would be equipped to defend his country. It is said that he, being intelligent and skilful, excelled in all subjects be they academic, warfare or sporting.

Due to its being essentially rural, the Kingdom of Kosala staged an annual ploughing festival. On one occasion when Siddhartha was attending this festival with his father, he noticed that as the plough turned the earth, creatures such as worms and caterpillars were exposed. Often birds would swoop down and devour these small creatures. At other times, larger birds would attack the smaller ones. It occurred to Siddhartha that this food cycle caused threat and suffering to all creatures. Sitting under a large tree he began to ponder on the very nature of life being subject to sorrow and unsatisfactoriness. As his mind became more concentrated, he began to experience the joy of deep meditation. He attained what is known in Sanskrit as the first Dhyana[v] or state of absorption. In this state the mind is fixed on one point without the disturbance of extraneous thoughts and feelings of joy and happiness arise. Siddhartha had not previously had instruction in meditation. His attainment was spontaneous.

On another occasion during his childhood, he was playing in the garden with his cousin, Devadatta. They were practising archery. Suddenly, a swan fell to Siddhartha’s feet, pierced with an arrow and in great pain. He picked up the unfortunate bird, wrapped it in his jacket and comforted it. His cousin came running towards him asking if he had seen the shot bird. On seeing the wounded bird, Devadatta demanded that Siddhartha give him his prized trophy. Siddhartha refused and a dispute arose as to whether the swan belonged to Devadatta, the marksman, or to Siddhartha, the rescuer. It was referred to his father’s senior advisers for resolution. Their verdict was that one who saves a life is nobler than one who tries to destroy it, so the swan was left to Siddhartha to nurse it back to health. This incident with the swan demonstrated that Siddhartha had cultivated the quality of compassion - a feeling of sharing the sufferings of other living creatures.

At the age of sixteen, Siddhartha was married to his beautiful cousin, Yashodhara. They were a very happy couple. His father indulged them with many luxuries such as three palaces, court musicians and dancers and numerous pleasure gardens. Siddhartha had, for most of his life, been confined within his father’s palace walls and was largely unaware of the lifestyles of the people outside its boundaries. He expressed a wish  to tour the city of Kapilavastu, the kingdom’s capital. His father reluctantly consented but arranged that the city be gaily decorated and that the aged and infirm be banned from appearing in the streets during the tour. He was worried that, as Siddhartha was so sensitive to distressing sights, should he see misfortune, he may decide to abandon the palace life and embrace the religious life. As Siddhartha set out in his chariot on his procession through the city, the streets were lined with cheering crowds, eager to catch a glance of him. So large were these crowds that it was inevitable that, despite his father’s best efforts, some sick and aged people managed to be among the spectators. At one stage, the procession passed a funeral ceremony. Being of a compassionate nature, Siddhartha inquired of his charioteer as to the welfare of these unfortunate people. He was informed that the glitter and entertainment that he experienced in his sheltered life were but a veneer, covering the stark reality of life - that of unsatisfactoriness, frustration, sorrow and death. He wondered how people could pretend to themselves that these consequences of life could seem only to happen to someone else and continually seek pleasure as if it could be a permanent solution to life’s problems. As he was returning home, he caught sight of a holy man, a homeless wanderer and seeker of truth. He was very moved by the calm and peaceful appearance of this saintly monk. Because of this practice of concentration and meditation, he seemed to glow and gave the impression that, through his practice, he had gained an understanding of how the sorrows and vicissitudes of life may be overcome.

Siddhartha decided that this was the path that he must follow. Life at the palace was becoming more and more futile. He longed for a lifestyle that would lead him to a way to that peace and calm that could overcome life’s frustrations. His only alternative was to leave the Palace to pursue the religious life. However, his plans were almost thwarted when he was informed that his wife had borne him a son whom they named Rahula, a name that means ‘hindrance’.

One evening whilst he was being entertained in his chamber by his musicians, dancers and singers, he realised that their performances held no further interest for him and he soon dozed off to sleep. Noticing that Siddhartha was no longer watching them, the performers also fell asleep. As they slept, their clothing became disarranged and their tears and saliva dissolved some of their make-up causing it to run, making ugly streaks on their faces. He awoke and, looking about him, he was confronted with this ghastly sight. He wondered whether he was really in the palace chamber for it resembled more a graveyard. He decided there and then that the time had come to leave and seek a way to overcome sorrow, lamentation and decay. He thought of his wife and son but realised that, although his leaving would cause them sadness, they were well cared for and his departure would create minimal disadvantage to them. His overwhelming compassion for suffering humankind far outweighed his feelings of responsibility to his family. He called at his wife’s bedchamber to say farewell but decided, as both wife and child were sleeping peacefully, that it was unnecessary to disturb them. He summoned his charioteer, Chandaka, to prepare the horse for his departure.

All was quiet as they set out from the palace. After crossing the Anoma River, Siddhartha dismounted, took his sword and cut off his hair and changed his aristocratic garments for the yellow robe of a homeless wanderer. He instructed his charioteer to return to the palace as, from that moment, he was a homeless seeker after the Truth.

Many famous spiritual teachers were living in India at that time. Indeed, throughout the world in the 6th century BCE, many great teachers appeared in other countries throughout the world, In Greece, for example, Pythagoras was expounding his religious theories that the source of all phenomena could be found in numbers.[vi] The Pythagoreans, like many of the religious people in India, believed in reincarnation. In China, Confucius[vii] and Lao Tzu[viii] were formulating doctrines that are still having a profound influence on the Chinese way of life. Siddhartha first became a disciple of Alara the Kalama, whose teaching led him to the attainment of the third state of meditative absorption, the third Dhyana, which has as its characteristics joy, happiness and one-pointedness of mind. Although, whilst in this Dhyana, he experienced a calm and blissful state, it was not a permanent overcoming of the frustrations and vicissitudes intrinsic to life as a human. This Dhyana was the limit of Alara the Kalama’s abilities so Siddhartha sought another teacher. His next teacher was Udraka Ramaputra, whose teachings led him to attain the fourth Dhyana in which one experiences happiness and one-pointedness of mind but, again, he had not attained the ultimate awakening or Buddhahood. Frustrated with his search for a teacher who could lead him to this ultimate realisation, he, and five others who had joined him in his search, resolved to seek the realisation of enlightenment by their own efforts. It was the practice then, as it is even today, for some misguided religious holy men to try to attain perfection by torturing and mutilating their bodies. Siddhartha also tried these practices, such as sleeping on thorns and eating only one handful of rice each day, but found that, rather than leading one to perfection, they resulted in a weakening of the body and an inability to subdue the mind.

After a long period of fasting, when his body came to resemble a shrouded skeleton, he realised the futility of such practices. One day, a lady named Sujata came by and, mistaking him for a tree god, offered him some milk rice, which he accepted. His fellow seekers of the truth, seeing this, felt that he had forsaken the struggle for enlightenment and had reverted to the worldly life. They decided to part company and move on to Benares to continue their practice without him. Siddhartha realised that neither the life of extreme luxury, as had been experienced at the palace, nor the extreme of torturing the body were conducive to attaining the ultimate truth. Both were extremes that should be avoided. A middle way seemed to him to be more beneficial. Recalling his experiences as a child meditating at the ploughing festival alone, he settled himself under a Pipal tree, the tree so revered by his ancestors in the Indus Valley. He vowed that he would not move from that spot until the ultimate enlightenment was attained. Reminiscences of his luxurious and pleasurable life at the palace came into his mind. Would he continue his quest or would he abandon it and revert to his priviledged life?

This was the temptation that he encountered. His determination to attain the highest goal that any human could achieve won the day and he devoted himself to concentration and meditation. His absorption was so complete that, initially, he recalled his past lives in great detail. Next, his mental powers enabled him to see the past lives of others and how the resultant of their actions caused them to experience joys and sorrows. In the final part of the night, he realised what is known as Paticcasamuppada, the important doctrine of Dependent Origination (that all things arise due to causes and pass away due to the removal of those causes). This profound realisation came to be summarised in the Four Noble Truths, the central and most important  teaching of Buddhism. These Four Noble Truths state that:

1.    Existence is unsatisfying and frustrating (Dukkha),

2.    The causes of  this Dukkha are greed or attachment, anger or aversion and a deluded mind.

3.    By removing these causes, Dukkha may be overcome.

4.    By following a method, known as the Noble Eightfold Path, the causes of Dukkha will disipate.

If you examine these Four Noble Truths, you will notice that they resemble the method used by a doctor or a scientist in tackling a problem. Identify the problem (the First Noble Truth). Identify the cause of the problem (the Second Noble Truth). Suggest a remedy or method to remove the cause (the Fourth Noble Truth). Verify that the treatment works and the problem has been solved (the Third noble Truth). Through applying the Noble Eightfold Path, which can be summarised as good conduct (Sila), mental cultivation or mindfulness (Samadhi) and its resulting wisdom (Prajna) Siddhartha overcame Dukkha and attained the freedom of Nirvana. He was supreme Buddha. The word ‘Buddha’ comes from the root ‘buddh’ which means ‘to awaken’. A Buddha is one who has awakened from the ignorance which is the basis of Dukkha.

At first, unwilling to teach, feeling that nobody would comprehend his profound teaching, he realised that a few people, who were not completely spiritually blind, could attain what he had attained. He went to Benares to find his former followers. At the deer park, at Sarnath near Benares, he saw them. At first, they resolved to ignore him due to his alleged reversion to the worldly life. As he came nearer, they were overwhelmed by his radiant appearance and they at once realised that he had, indeed, become a Buddha. He preached to them his famous first sermon, known as the ‘Sermon Setting in Motion the Wheel of Truth’ ( Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta), which explains, in detail, the Four Noble Truths. They fully understood the teaching and they themselves attained Full Enlightenment.[ix]

The Buddha taught for the next forty-five years, accepting followers irrespective of class or caste. He ordained kings, beggars and even thieves and murderers. Those that he ordained were known as Bhikkhus.

At one time, his cousin, Ananda, who was his constant companion, was requested by Prajapati, the Buddha’s foster mother, to ask the Buddha if he would allow her to ordain. The Buddha feared that, as his Bhikkhus were homeless wanderers, who spent much time wandering in the jungle, if women were to join their ranks, they may be vulnerable to dangers that men did not have to face. So he refused. However, Ananda was persistent and asked the Buddha whether it was possible for a woman to attain Enlightenment. The Buddha replied that Enlightenment was not dependent on the gender of the seeker. He then relented and established the order of Bhikkhunis. The Buddha was the first religious teacher to assert the equality of women and admit them as his followers. His teaching was unique in that he taught that one should not look to some external power, such as a god, for salvation. One should look within oneself. In the sermon, known as the Rohitavsa Sutra, the Buddha said:

In this very body, six feet in length -

With its sense impressions and its thoughts and ideas -

I do declare to you -

Are the world - the origin of the world and the ceasing of the world -

Likewise Nirvana -

And the Path leading to Nirvana.

After teaching for forty five years and gaining many disciples, the Buddha finally passed away at Kushinagara, aged eighty years. The last words uttered by the Buddha, prior to his passing were:

Oh Disciples, subject to change are all compounded things -

Work out your own salvation with diligence,

Strive ceaselessly.

(III) After the Buddha’s Passing Away

Soon after the Buddha’s passing, five hundred Arahants (disciples who had attained enlightenment through hearing the teachings of the Buddha) gathered, in what is often called the First Council[x], to recall and organise the teachings of the Buddha (Dhamma, Pali - Dharma, Sanskrit). Ananda, who was with the Buddha constantly throughout his life, was asked to recall the sermons that the Buddha had preached. After some discussion, they agreed that what Ananda recalled was essentially what the Buddha had taught. These sermons (suttas, Pali - sutras, Sanskrit) became known as the Sutta Pitaka or Sermon collection and constitute the middle collection of the Buddhist canon (Tipitaka, Pali - Tripitaka, Sanskrit). Upali, a monk of great learning, recalled the monastic rules and these, after discussion by the monks, were agreed upon. Ananda remembered having been told by the Buddha that some minor rules could, after his passing, be dispensed with, but the major rules must be preserved. During the discussion on this point, the monks could not agree on what constituted the minor rules, so they resolved that all of the rules should be retained. This collection of the monastic rules is known as the Vinaya Pitaka or Discipline Collection and is the first section of the Buddhist canon. The Buddhist canon, is collectively known as the Tipitaka (Pali) or Tripitaka (Sanskrit), which means three collections. The third section of the canon is known as the Abhidhamma (Pali) or Abhidharma (Sanskrit) and is a teaching of Buddhist Philosophy and Psychology. Most scholars agree that this is a collection of later writings and therefore this first meeting of the monks probably accepted only two collections. It was not until the time of the great emporer Asoka, in the third  century BCE, that the books of the Abhidhamma were finally included in the Tripitaka.

About 100 years after the passing away of the Buddha, a Second Council was called to adjudicate on some monks who were not strictly observing the diciplinary rules of the Vinaya. These monks were accused of breaking such rules as handling gold and silver, eating after noon, etc. which they considered to be minor rules and permitted by the Buddha. The Elder Monks, known as the Theras, disagreed and said that these offences should warrant the monks’ expulsion from the monastic order. These dissident monks broke away from the orthodox or Theravada monks and formed a new group or schism known as the Mahasanghikas[xi]. The Mahasanghikas also disagreed with the Theravadins as to the goal of the Buddhist practice. The Theravadins held that the highest goal that one could attain was that of the Arahant and that the monastic life was the only way one could attain it. The Mahasanghikas, regarded this as a rather elitist attitude. They argued that a Buddhist practitioner, monastic or lay, should strive to become a Bodhisattva, one who postpones their full enlightenment until they can become a Buddha and thus be instrumental in leading other beings to enlightenment. From the Mahasanghikas, the major tradition of the Mahayana eventually evolved.

By the third century BCE,  the Buddha Sasana (Buddhism) had split into eighteen sects or schools. The Theravadins had broken into eleven sub-sects whilst the remaining seven were a part of the Mahasanghikas. The divisions into these sects were on minor points of doctrine or on interpretations of the monastic discipline. The essential teachings of the Buddha, the Four Noble Truths and Dependent Origination, however, were held by all sects. Whilst the Theravadins held that the Buddha was man perfected, the Mahasanghikas were the first school to consider that the Buddha was transcendental and had three bodies (Trikaya) - an eternal essence (Dharmakaya), that eternally enjoyed the bliss body, which appears to Buddhas and Bodhisattvas in the celesial realm (Sambhogakaya) and which manifests in human form (Rupakaya) from time to time. They also held that there were heavenly Bodhisattvas, future Buddhas, who could be called upon for help in time of need. These doctrines, formulated by the Mahasanghikas, became an essential ingredient of the teachings of the group of schools, traditionally known as the Mahayana. ‘Mahayana’ means ‘great vehicle’, whereas the Theravada is often refered to by the Mahayana followers as ‘Hinayana’ which means ‘lesser vehicle’. ‘Hinayana’ is a derogatory term which is rarely used today.

The fathers of the Mahayana were considered to be Nagarjuna, who lived between the first and second centuries of the current era, and founded what is known as the Madhamika philosophy or philosophy of the Middle Way and Maitreyanatha who lived in the third century of our era.

Maiteyanatha's philosophy was further developed in the fourth century by two brothers, Asangha and Vasubandhu and was known as Yogacara or Vijnavada philosophy. Yoga means meditation and Vijna means consciousness or mind. This also became known as the "Mind Only" school as it emphasised subjective idealism - that consciousness is the ultimate reality.

Nagarjuna taught that there is neither reality nor non-reality but only relativity. Madhyamika attacked the Theravada (Sthaviravada) belief that everything, even component parts are in perpetual flux or state of becoming.  Madhyamika introduced the concept of Sunyata or emptiness. It taught that all elements (Dharmas) are impermanent and have no independent existence in themselves. They may be broken down into parts, the parts into sub-parts and so on infinitely. Therefore, taught Nagarjuna, all phenomena have a relative as opposed to an absolute existence. All of life is reduced to a single, underlying flux, a stream of existence with an everlasting becoming.

A variation of the Mahayana school, the Vajrayana or Esoteric School[i] , developed during the first decade of the current era. Esoteric Buddhism grew out of the Yogacara school of the Mahayana and adopted the use Mantras (magic formulae) and Mandalas (Magic diagrams in the forms of squares and triangles). To restrict these ‘magical’ teachings to an inner circle of initiates, a system of oral transmission of the teachings from master (Guru) to student (cela) was implemented. The initiates also called on a large number of gods and godesses to assist them in their quest to attain perfection (siddhi). In a later period of its development, some corrupt practices crept in to this Esoteric Buddhism which were known as the five ma-karas[ii], which were ‘madya’ (wine), ‘mamsa’ (flesh), ‘matsya’ (fish), ‘mudra’ (woman) and ‘maithuna’ (sexual intercourse). Indulgence in these five ma-karas were encouraged and practised both by lay and monastic followers. These practices were contrary to the original teachings of the Buddha and were, in large part responsible for the decline of Buddhism in the land of its birth, India. Today, Buddhism is almost extinct in India. As well as these corrupt practices just mentioned and its adoption of the worship of gods, Buddhism became somewhat indistinguishable from Hinduism, which absorbed many Buddhist followers. What remained of Buddhism, fell victim to the Arab (Muslim) invaders, led by Muhammad Kasim, in 712 CE.

'His soldiers slaughtered a large number of 'samanis' (sramanas or ascetics) who 'shaved their heads and beards'.--- Toward the end of the 8th century the Arabs swooped down upon the prosperous monasteries of Gujarat and destroyed the Buddhist University at Valabhi on the sea coast.'[iii]

IV The Spread of Buddhism

During the reign, in India, of Asoka (273 - 276 BCE)  Buddhism spread throughout the length and breadth of the Indian sub-continent. According to Asoka’s thirteenth rock edict, Asoka also sent missionaries to countries outside India, such as Egypt, Greece and Macedonia, also to Sri Lanka and, possibly, Burma (Myanmar)[iv].  In 246 BCE Asoka sent his son, Mahendra, and his daughter, Sanghamittra, to Sri Lanka where Mahendra converted the king and thus established Buddhism as the state religion. Sanghamittra is credited with taking with her a sapling from the tree, under which the Buddha sat on the night of his Enlightenment, which was planted at Anuradhapura and is still growing to this day. As the original tree at Buddh-Gaya in India has since died, this venerated tree in Sri Lanka is the oldest historical tree in the world. Between the first and second centuries BCE, the Buddhist canon (Tripitaka) was first committed to writing in Sri Lanka. Although Buddhist culture and scholarship reached their peak during the first centuries of the common era, due to invasions from India and the colonisation of Sri Lanka by the Christian Portugese, Dutch and British, Buddhism suffered somewhat of a decline over the centuries. In the latter part of the nineteenth century, due largely to the efforts of Colonel H.S.Olcott, an American member of the Buddhist Theosophical Society, who teamed with a young Sri Lankan, Anagarika Dharmapala, Buddhism had a revival in Sri Lanka. One great achievement of Col.Olcott was to persuade the British authorities to grant a public holiday on Vesak Day, the most sacred day of the Buddhist calendar. From Sri Lanka, Theravada Buddhism later spread to Cambodia, Laos and Thailand in the 12th century CE. These countries constitute the stronghold of the Theravada or the orthodox school of Buddhism.

The Mahayana, or reformed school, spread to China, Korea, Japan and Vietnam, during the early centuries of the current era. Although there is evidence that Buddhism was known in China during the Han Dynasty in the first century BCE, it was during the first centuries of the common era that there was much activity in translating the Buddhist scriptures into the Chinese language. Great difficulty was encountered in conveying the difficult Buddhist concepts in Chinese, so it was to relate them to the prevailing Taoist way of thought. Many great Buddhist scholars, especially Kumarajiva, were invited from India to assist in these translations. Many Chinese scholars also went to India to study at the famous Buddhist universities and to obtain additional copies of the Buddhist scriptures. One of the most famous of these travellers was Fa-hsien[v] , also known as Tripitaka, whose travels inspired the classic of Chinese fiction “Journey to the West”, better known as “Monkey”[vi], which became a popular television series. As Buddhism developed in China, several schools or traditions arose, mainly based on the emphasis placed on a particular scripture. Some important schools which have influenced modern Chinese Buddhism are:

T’ien-t’ai (Tendai, Japanese) which evolved from the Madhyamika and based its study, mainly on the Lotus Sutra,[vii] which is considered one of the most important scriptures of the Mahayana tradition.

Cha’an (Zen, Japanese), influenced by the Yogacara school which placed a great emphasis on meditation rather than scripture (Sutra) study. Those scriptures that are considered important to the Cha’an school are “The Diamond Sutra” and the “Platform Sutra of Hui Neng”.[viii]

Hua-yen (Kegon, Japanese) evolved from the Madhyamika school and emphasised the teachings of the Avatamsaka Sutra[ix], one of the longest sutras in the Mahayana literature.

Chen-yen (Shingon, Japanese) is the Esoteric Buddhism, which grew out of the Yogacara school in India, but minus the ‘five ma-karas’ corruption mentioned earlier.

Ching-t’u (Shin-shu, Japanese) or Pure Land Buddhism is based on the Sukhvati-Vyuha, which describes the Pure Land and the Amitayur-Dhyana Sutra,[x] a sermon that teaches the way to attain the Pure Land. The Pure Land School is sometimes referred to as ‘messianic Buddhism’. It teaches that, by reciting the name of Amitabha Buddha, the Buddha of infinite light, that one can be reborn in the Pure Land (Sukhavati), the western Paradise, where Amitabha Buddha resides and, by hearing his teaching, can attain enlightenment more easily.

These Chinese schools are not mutually exclusive. Chinese Buddhism today is a fusion of elements drawn from each of these schools but the main practice, especially by the laity, is Pure Land

Prior to the arrival of Buddhism in Korea, the main religious practice was that of Shamanism which still holds a significant place in Korean life. Shamanism holds that human beings as well as natural forces and inanimate objects all possess spirits which must be appeased. 

It is assumed that Buddhism first arrived on the Korean peninsular in 372 C.E. when a monk arrived from China bringing Chinese texts and statues. It was an elementary form of Buddhism that he taught, consisting of the teaching of Karma (cause and effect) and the search for happiness which seemed to blend well with the indigenous Shamanism, so it was quickly assimilated.

At that time the peninsular consisted of three separate kingdoms of Koguryo to the north, Paekje to the south west and Shilla on the south east. It was in Koguryo that Buddhism was first established. In 384 the King of Paekje was converted to Buddhism and decreed that his subjects should follow suit. It was not until 527, however, that Buddhism became established in Shilla where it flourished. In 668 C.E. Shilla conquered the other kingdoms and Korea was unified. During the United Shilla Period, the arts flourished producing such magnificent items as the Sokuram image, which is in a cave near Kyongju and the Pulguksa temple in Kyongju which is famous for its twin stupas. The Koryo Dynasty which gave its name to present day Korea, assumed power in the 10th century. Its era heralded such important events as the creation of the Tripitaka Koreana, the complete collection of the Buddhist scriptures carved by hand in Chinese characters on over 80,000 wood blocks The most popular form of Buddhism, which they adopted from China was Cha’an (Seon, in Korean). Chi-nul[i]  a famous monk born in 1158 CE, stressed a balance between the meditation practice of Seon and the study of the scriptures. Chi-nul founded the Songgkwang temple on Mount Chogye, and this temple became the headquarters of the Chogye sect which is the main sect of Korean Seon to this day.

In 538 CE, King Syong-Myong of Paekje, feeling threatened by the kingdoms of Koguryo and Shilla, sent a gift of  Buddhist Sutras and a gold-plated Buddha image to Kinmei-Tenno, the emporer of Japan, in the hope of forming an alliance. This heralded the arrival of Buddhism in Japan, but it was not until the reign of  Prince Shotoko in the sixth and seventh centuries that Japanese Buddhism began to bloom. Much resistance was met from the people who saw Buddhism as a threat to the established Shinto religion. However, Buddhism was able to accomodate the existing beliefs of Shinto and so both religions were able to co-exist.  In the seventh century, the Kegon (Hua-yen, Chinese) school, based on the Avatamsaka Sutra was the most prominent. In the eighth century, two more sects, the Zen (Cha’an, Chinese) and  Shingon (Chen-yen, Chinese), or Esoteric Buddhism took root. By the eleventh century, the Pure Land School (Shin-shu) became very popular. Shinran-Shonin, a monk of the Pure Land School, founded, in the twelfth century, what he called the “True Sect of Pure Land” or Jodo-shinshu. He taught that it was not necessary to recite the name of Amitabha Buddha (Amida-Butsu, Japanese) but merely to have faith in him to attain deliverance[ii]. He also taught that the Pure Land was not located in the West but within ourselves. He married Eshin-ni, a nun, who bore him five children. This instituted the tradition of married clergy in Japan which prevails to this day. Jodo-shinshu is the largest sect in Japan today and has branches in Australia.

Another school, which was founded in Japan in the thirteenth century, was an offspring of  Tendai. Nichiren, a Buddhist monk, condemned all other Buddhist sects, declaring them “false religion. Due to his constant attacks on the established sects, he was exiled to Sado Island in the Sea of Japan. He correctly predicted a threatened Mongol invasion of Japan and chanted constantly so that the Mongols would be repelled. When a storm arose which halted their planned invasion, he attained great fame. He taught that salvation was only possible by the recitation of the formula (daimoku), “Namu Myoho Renge Kyo” (Homage to the Lotus Sutra). Several sects of Nichiren Buddhism are to be found today in Japan.

The original religion of Tibet was Bon, a mixture of animism , shamanism and sorcery. In the seventh century CE, the King of Tibet, Sronbstan, married two princesses. One was Bhrukuti from Nepal and the other Wen-Ch’eng from China, both of whom were Buddhists. This marked the entry of Buddhism to Tibet but it was not until the eighth century, with the arrival from India of Padmasambhava, a teacher of Tantric Buddhism, that Buddhism became firmly established. This early form of Tibetan Buddhism, known as Ningma-pa, assimilated many of the existing Bon practices and is the only current example of the form of Buddhism which was prevalent in India at the time of its declining years. In the eleventh century, Atisa, a famous Indian Yogacara scholar and translator, arrived in Tibet and undertook the task of reforming Buddhism. He discouraged magical practices and enforced celibacy on the monks. His friend and fellow translator, Marpa, was the founder of the Kargyu-pa sect. The Ningma-pa, the Kargyu-pa and another sect, closely related to the Nyingma-pa which arose in the eleventh century, the Sakya-pa, were known collectively as the “Red Hats”. It was a lama (teacher) from the Sakya-pa tradition, Sakya Pandita, who converted the Mongolian Prince, Kublai Khan, to Buddhism, thus averting a Mongolian invasion of Tibet. Kublai Khan appointed the High Priest of the Sakya-pa as the ruler of Tibet. This was the beginning of theocratic[iii] rule in Tibet.

Tibetan Buddhism, in the fifteenth century, was full of superstition and corruption. A lama from the Sakya-pa, Tsonkha-pa, undertook the task of reforming Buddhism by eradicating these deviations and instituting an order of monks based on discipline, learning and celibacy. This order, the fourth sect, is known as the Gelug-pa, the “Yellow Hats”.  This reformed sect grew rapidly in respect and influence, not only among the Tibetans, but by the Mongols as well. Altan Khan was convinced that the third Gelug-pa patriarch, Sonam Gyatso, was a reincarnation of Sakya Pandit, the lama who brought Buddhism to Mongolia, so he conferred on him the title of Dalai[iv], a title which successive heads of the Gelug-pa sect have inherited. After much political turmoil and sectarian rivalry, the fifth Dalai Lama came to the throne of Tibet. Since then, successive Dalai Lamas ruled Tibet until the Chinese occupation of the country in 1959, when the present Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, was forced to flee to India.

Tibetan Buddhism, although having its roots in the Mahayana tradition, is unique in preserving the mediaeval Buddhism of India prior to its decline together with the complete Mahayana scriptures which were destroyed by the Muslim invaders.

DEVOTIONAL PRACTICES

Buddhists of all schools regularly perform the action of ‘Taking Refuge’. A refuge is a shelter or safe haven and similarly, in Buddhism, taking refuge is considered to be a protection. The refuges are:-

The Buddha - the teacher, is refered to in the scriptures as “Teacher of gods and men”.

The Dharma (Sanskrit) or Dhamma (Pali) - his teaching. Before the Buddha passed away, he told Ananda, his chief disciple, that after his passing, the Dharma would be the teacher.

The Sangha - is the community of followers. More specifically, it refers to those who have left home to follow the spiritual life, the Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis. In the broader sense, it includes those who are following his teachings whether they be monastic or lay.

The initial recitation of the “Three Refuges”, before a member of the monastic Sangha, constitutes formally becoming a Buddhist. In the Tibetan tradition, an additional refuge is added, that of  taking refuge in the Guru (teacher), who initiates the Cela (student).

Another important devotional practice is the recitation of the five precepts, known as the ‘Panca Sila’ (Pali) or Panca Shila (Sanskrit). These are training rules and, unlike, say, the Ten Commandments in Christianity, they are not based on fear and feelings of guilt. A Buddhist should undertake training to try to observe these precepts but, if a precept is broken, one should analyse one’s action and try to avoid breaking it in the future. This is not to suggest that the consequences of this unwholesome action (Karma) will be avoided - the admonition in the Christian Bible, “as ye sow, so shall ye also reap” applies to Buddhists as well as to Christians. The emphasis in Buddhism is to train one’s self-awareness of one’s actions and their effects on both one’s self and others and to avoid unwholesome actions and cultivate beneficial ones. The Five Precepts are:

I undertake the training to avoid destroying life.

I undertake the training to avoid taking what does not belong to me.

I undertake the training to avoid sexual misconduct.

I undertake the training to avoid lying, deceiving, slander and vulgar or useless speech.

I undertake the training to avoid those intoxicants and drugs that distort the mind.

On special holy days, usually Full and New Moon Days (Uposatha), many Buddhists, in the Theravada tradition, will undertake these three additional precepts:

I undertake the training to avoid taking food after noon.

I undertake the training to avoid the use of garlands, perfumes and ornaments to decorate the body and from witnessing dancing, music or unseemly shows..

I undertake the training to avoid the use of high or luxurious seats.

Those taking these Eight Precepts (Attha Sila), also practice strict celibacy on those special days.

At some time in their lives, many young men, from the Theravadin tradition, take temporary ordination as novice monks (Samanera) for a short period - usually three months. This is considered a necessary training to equip them for adulthood. Thai, Lao and Cambodian Buddhists may also be ordained for a short period, perhaps only for a day, following the death of a parent. This is done to transfer the result of their good action or merit to the departed parent. These novices will have their heads shaved, don the robes of a monk and observe ten precepts for the period of their ordination. They observe ten precepts, the eight precepts mentioned previously, with the eighth precept being divided into two plus an additional precept of not handling gold or silver (i.e. money). No woman in South East Asia would regard any man as a fit marriage partner unless he had served a period as a monk.

A Buddhist ceremony will usually start with the offerings of lights, incense and flowers on the shrine. Occasionally, fruit, cakes and drinks will also be offered but the lights, incense and flowers have very special significance.. The lighting of a candle symbolises the teaching (Dharma) which lights up the darkness of ignorance. The incense symbolises the good conduct which permeates the atmosphere with pleasantness, whilst the flowers remind us of impermanence. What is beautiful today, fades with time and eventually becomes ugly.

Other important devotional practices are the chanting of sutras (sermons of the Buddha or other great teachers), prostrations before a Buddha image, and, most importantly, practicing meditation. The chanting of sutras is often, mistakenly, referred to as Buddhist prayers. Buddhists do not pray to a god, however, Buddhists from the Mahayana tradition will sometimes pray to Bodhisattvas for assistance and blessings. Prostrations are considered a means of paying respect to the teacher in a similar way to people respecting those who have passed away by placing flowers on a grave. Prosrations also are a means of cultivating humility. Many ‘Western’ Buddhists do not feel comfortable in bowing before an image. This is, largely, due to their former Christian upbringing and the Commandment regarding  ‘bowing down to graven images’. There is no compulsion in Buddhism to do anything with which one does not feel comfortable. The Buddha condemned ‘rites and rituals’ as being useless and not conducive to salvation. The practice of prostrating before images is more a part of institutionalised Buddhism rather than being a part of the Teaching itself. Buddha images were unknown in early Buddhism. As previously mentioned, the Buddha stated that after his passing, the Dharma would be the teacher. He was opposed to being represented by an image. He feared that people may regard him as a god and worship the person rather than the teaching. North Western India came under Greek domination[v] in the first century BCE and the first representations of the Buddha appeared based on those of Apollo[vi]. Prior to this time, the Buddha was represented by either a footprint, an empty chair or a wheel.

Meditation (Bhavana) is a central part of Buddhist practice. In the Theravadin tradition, two forms of meditation, calm (Samatha) and insight (Vipassana) are recognised as essential practice in achieving spiritual progress. Calming the mind is achieved by concentration on a specific object and excluding all extraneous thoughts. Often, the breath or the movement of the diaphragm is used as a suitable object for concentration. At other times, objects, such as coloured discs (Kasinas) or meditation beads (Mala) or even counting the breaths are used to fix the mind during this preliminary practice. Once the mind has been trained in concentration, the meditator can then reflect on the feelings and sensations of the body, noting them as they arise and pass away. This practice is known as Vipassana and is the means of cultivating insight or mindfulness.

In the Cha’n (Zen, Japanese) tradition, two techniques are employed. One method is to concentrate on the breath and then try to clear the mind of all thoughts whatsoever. This method eliminates the constant chatter of the mind and results in an awakening (satori). Another Cha’an technique is to ponder a question (Kung-an, Chinese, Koan, Japanese), which has no rational answer. Typical koans are, “what was your face before you were born?” “what is the sound of one hand clapping?” or the word “Mu”. These techniques are aimed at pushing the mind beyond rational thought in order to experience the ultimate awakening.

A technique used by the Pure Land Sect of the Mahayana is to constantly recite the name (nien-fo, Chinese, nembutsu, Japanese) of the Buddha of infinite light, Amitabha Buddha (Omi t’o-Fo, Chinese, Amida Butsu, Japanese). This, again, is a means of fixing the mind on one object and not dissimilar to repetitions of prayers used by many Christians. The result is a calmed mind, and, according to Pure Land Buddhism, rebirth in the Pure Land where enlightenment may be attained by listening to the teaching of Buddha Amitabha.

 (III) The Beliefs of the Buddhists.

The central teaching of all schools of Buddhism is grounded in the “Four Noble Truths”. These Truths were mentioned earlier when we were looking at the Enlightenment of the Buddha. The first truth is that life is subject to Dukkha. Dukkha is often translated as ‘suffering’ but it is much more than that. It certainly means physical and mental suffering but it also means that life is full of frustrations - we would always prefer things to be other than the way they are. As we grow old, we wish we could remain young. If we are poor, we wish we could be rich. When we are separated from  our friends and loved ones, we are saddened.  Dukkha is birth sickness, old age, pain and despair, separation from those whom we like and association with those whom we dislike. All of these are examples of Dukkha and that is the First Noble Truth. The Second Noble Truth states that the Cause of Dukkha can be attributed to three things - greed, anger and a deluded mind. We tend to be attached to people and material things and when we are separated from them, we suffer regret. We cling to these things as if they will last forever and we find it hard to accept the fact that they don’t. We get angry or have aversions to those things that we do not like. Buddhism teaches that anger harms the one who is angry more than the object to which this anger is directed. Anger causes heating of the blood and an unpleasant appearance. The more we get angry with someone and they react to our anger the more this anger increases. Anger is unproductive - it doesn’t solve the problem. Our minds are deluded because we do not see things as they really are - that is, subject to impermanence (anicca, Pali), frustrating (dukkha, Pali) and devoid of a permanent self or substance (anatta, Pali). Everything, material or immaterial, is subject to change or impermanence. Perhaps you are sitting in a comfortable chair reading this book. If you remain in that chair for the next three hours, without moving, do you still think you could regard the chair as comfortable? If you remained fixed in that chair for a month, you would probably find that you are crippled and unable to move. If you remain in that chair for a hundred years, you will probably be a skeleton and the chair will be fairly seedy too. What starts as being regarded as ‘comfortable’ can soon change to being uncomfortable. Everything is relative. The way we see things depends on the time, place and current situation. We, ourselves, are subject to this change. Every cell in our body is constantly aging and dying and being replaced. Our thoughts and ideas are constantly changing or being modified. Your thoughts and ideas, since you started reading this book, are different. They have changed considerably. Is there anything in you which is not subject to change? This is why Buddhists say, in the ultimate sense, there is no ‘you’ or unchanging self entity. This change and this “no self’ is difficult to accept and is, therefore, Dukkha.

The third Noble Truth concerns the overcoming of Dukka, that is, overcoming the greed anger and delusion that are the source of Dukkha. Accepting change as a characteristic of life and not becoming angry or frustrated about it is part of the way to overcoming Dukkha. The overcoming of Dukka is termed “Nirvana”. Nirvana is not a place but a state of mind - a mind that sees things as they really are and not clouded by delusion.

The fourth Noble Truth is the method taught by the Buddha for attaining the state of Nirvana. It is the Noble Eightfold Path. You may be wondering why the term ‘Noble’(Ariya) is used for the Path. One who walks the Path is considered to be a noble person. The eight steps of the Path are:

Right Understanding is knowledge that the Four Noble Truths lead to the overcoming of Dukkha. It does not imply a total understanding of these Truths but a confidence that, by following the Path, the result will be attained.

Right Thought is to be constantly aware of one’s thoughts and actions and thereby avoiding harm to any living creature.

Right Speech is awareness of one’s speech so that, what one says, is beneficial to the hearer.

Right Action is to be aware of one’s actions and observe the five precepts so that one does not cause harm to oneself or any other living creature.

Right Livelihood is to earn one’s living in a way that does not cause harm or suffering. Such occupations as the selling of intoxicants, firearms or animals for slaughter would be considered inappropriate for Buddhists.

Right Effort is the avoiding of evil  which has not already arisen, rejecting evil which has already arisen, the acquiring of wholesome things which have not yet been acquired and the stabilising of those wholesome characteristics that have already been acquired.

Right Mindfulness is training in constant awareness of the effects of one’s actions, whether of body, speech or mind, and thus avoiding harmful actions.

Right Concentration is cultivating the mind through concentration and meditation so that one attains intuitive insight.

Most Buddhists believe that, upon the dissolution of the body, rebirth may take place in a state consistent with the qualities of the consciousness energy, or resultant of past actions (karma) at the time of death. This rebirth may occur in human form, animal form, as a ghost (preta), in a blissful state (deva) or in a woeful state. Each of these states is impermanent and lasts as long as the karmic energy, which was reborn, sustains it. In other words, we are subject to a constant round of rebirths (Samsara) until Nirvana, or the release from rebirth is attained. The Theravada tradition believes that rebirth is instantaneous upon the death of the individual, whereas the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions believe in an intermediate state (antarabhava), which can last until the right conditions for rebirth prevail. Three conditions are necessary for conception in the womb of either a human or animal to occur, that is, male sperm, female ovum and the karmic energy.

Karma is not a reward or punishment for past actions but rather a natural result or outcome of them. Buddhists do not accept the concept of a creator god who sits in judgement on his creation. We are our own creator by our past actions. We are what we have done and we will be what we are now doing is what the Law of Karma states. On a popular level as taught in institutionalised Buddhism, whenever misfortune or happiness befalls us, it is due to our past karma. This tends to imply a punisher or rewarder, in other words a judging god, an idea which Buddhists reject. That is why many  modern Buddhist scholars interpret Karma as a psychological phenomenon. Bad actions cause remorse, regrets and feelings of guilt which disturb our peace of mind, whereas good actions bring joy and happiness and peace of mind. Although a Buddhist would not accept the idea of an anthropomorphic god, neither do many Christians, Jews or Moslems. A Buddhist would be hesitant in using the term ‘God’ but the concept of Nirvana may be very close to what modern theologians concieve as ‘God’. The Buddhist concept of Nirvana, the highest state attainable is described in the  Itivuttaka, one of the books of the Buddhist canon thus:

‘Monks, there is an unborn, a not-become, a not-made, a not-compounded. Monks, if that unborn, not-become, not-made, not-compounded were not, there would be apparent no escape from this that here is born, become, made, compounded. But, monks, since there is an unborn, not-become, not-made, not-compounded, therefore the escape from this that here is born, become, made and compounded is apparent.’

From the foregoing, it is apparent that the statement that Buddhists do not believe in God is not necessarily correct. We must first ascertain what we mean by the term “God”. We should also note that Nirvana is not anihilation, as many non-Buddhists claim but is a state beyond becoming - a transcendental state.

Another important doctrine is that of the Heavenly States (Brahma Vihara) which all Buddhists should cultivate. They are Boundless Loving-kindness (Maitri, Sanskrit, Metta, Pali), Boundless Compassion (Karuna), Boundless Joy (Mudita) and Boundless Equanimity (Upekkha). The practice of these four should be directed towards all living beings. The Buddha describes “Boundless Loving-kindness” as that unconditional, selfless love that a mother has for her only child. Boundless Compassion is the feeling of wishing to take onto oneself the sufferings and sorrows of others. This compassion is especially emphasised in the Mahayana school where followers will take the Bodhisattva Vow which promises to postpone the attainment of Enlightenment until all suffering creatures may be saved. Boundless Joy is rejoicing in the good fortune of others. It is the opposite of envy or covetousness. Boundless Equanimity is the cultivation of an even mind - one that is unmoved by either happiness or misfortune.

Buddhism in Australia

Whether any of them were practising Buddhists or perhaps more motivated by greed is unknown. On November 16th, 1882, a group of Sri Lankans arrived in Mackay, Queensland, on board the the ship, "Devonshire. There is evidence that many of these early migrants were Buddhists.

'Pressure from the Christian establishmentof the day must have been strong. Withintwenty years after their arrival, most ifnot all those that were still alive had been converted. If some older folk remained Buddhists at heart, their children apparently did not.'[i]

Six years prior to the arrival of the Sri Lankans in Mackay, there was a Buddhist temple on Thursday Island, the northernmost tip of Australia. In the late 1800’s, a Dr.Worthington formed a group called "Students of Truth" which regarded themselves as 'Christian Buddhists'. This group, apparently, had branches on mainland Australia as well as Tasmania and even extending to New Zealand. At that time, there was much hostility from the Christian churches to any favorable mention of Buddhism, let alone its practise. In 1897, a Victorian newspaper, 'The Healsville Guardian' published an article in defence of Buddhism, which resulted in a threatened boycott of the paper by several Christian ministers. In the early 1900’s, the three times Prime Minister of Australia, Alfred Deakin, was prominent in the Melbourne branch of the Buddhist Theosophical Society. He was advised to distance himself from such an organisation, otherwise it could cost him his job.

In 1915, five Buddhist monks of German origin arrived in Sydney. They were part of a consignment of foreign internees sent from Sri Lanka for imprisonment in Australia. One of these monks was a former world famous violinist, Anton Gueth, who as Venerable Nyanatiloka, was one of the greatest pioneers of western Buddhism.

It was not until the 1950’s, however, that Buddhism, as an ongoing religious tradition in Australia, finally took root. In 1952, an American born Buddhist nun, Dhammadinna, arrived and taught a small interested group. She administered the Three Refuges and eight precepts to this group on the Holy Day of Vesak, the celebration of the Birth, Enlightenment and passing away of the Buddha, on the 29th of May, 1953. This same year, the Buddhist Society of New South Wales was founded under the presidency of Leo Berkeley, a Sydney businessman. Soon after its formation, Buddhist Societies were formed in Victoria, Tasmania and Queensland. The first secretary of the Tasmanian Buddhist Society was a former Senator, Ken Wriedt.

It was not until the mid 1970’s, however, that Buddhism became firmly established due to the arrival of refugees from the Communist takeover of the Indo-Chinese countries. During the 1980’s, a new phenomenon appeared in Australian cities - traditional Buddhist temples. It was not easy for these temples to be accepted by the older Australian community[ii]. Many local councils rejected Development Applications for these temples on the grounds that they were out of keeping with the lifestyles and architecture of their suburbs. Most councils decisions were over-ridden, however, by the Land and Environment Courts. In New South Wales, the majority of Buddhist temples may be found in the Cabramatta and Campbelltown districts where there is a large population of Indo-Chinese background. One of the largest Buddhist temples in the Southern hemisphere is the Nan Tien Temple in Wollongong, south of Sydney. This temple was established by the Taiwan-based Buddhist organisation, Fo Kuang Shan.

In 1986 and again in 1991, a census was conducted throughout Australia by the Commonwealth Government's Bureau of Statistics. The only question, however, that was not compulsory to answer was that pertaining to religion. This leaves some doubt as to the accuracy of the final figures which could be well and truly understated. The census revealed that in 1986, 80,837 people claimed Buddhism as their religion. However, in 1991 the result showed an increase to 139,847, placing the Buddhists as being 0.8% of the Australian population and 0.1% of the New South Wales population making Buddhism the third major religion, after Christianity and Islam. In New South Wales in 1991, 58,743 people claimed to be Buddhists, of which 19,780 were of Vietnamese origin. While 42% of the Buddhist population of Australia lives in New South Wales, Buddhists constitute 12.5% of the population of the Fairfield  local government area, which includes Cabramatta,  the highest concentration of Buddhists in Australia..

Despite the misgivings and prejudice that Buddhism encountered in its early days, it has now established itself as one of the respected mainstream religions in modern day Australia.